• Proteins are composed of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
• Each protein can be described in terms of its structural organization:
• Primary structure: Refers to the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain, including the N-terminal and C-terminal ends of the molecule.
• Secondary structure: Involves the formation of alpha-helices and beta-sheets, which are local conformations stabilized by hydrogen bonds.
• Tertiary structure: Represents the overall shape of a single protein molecule. It includes protein domains, which are specific structural regions that confer specific functions to the protein, such as enzymatic activity.
• Quaternary structure: Describes the final shape of a protein, which is formed by the assembly of several protein molecules. These individual protein units are often referred to as protein subunits, as seen in the example of hemoglobin with its alpha2beta2 subunits.

Mnemonic: CAT HIPE 🐱

1. Complement and coagulation factors
2. Acute phase proteins: CRP (C-reactive protein), amyloid protein A, haptoglobin, fibrinogen
3. Transport proteins: haptoglobin, transferrin, ceruloplasmin, apolipoproteins
4. Hormones (proteohormones): calcitonin, PTH (parathyroid hormone), insulin
5. Immunoglobulins: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, IgD
6. Proteinase inhibitors: a1-antitrypsin, antithrombin III
7. Enzymes: amylase, lipase, cholinesterase

Mnemonic: HEI ABC HammerThrow, ps ICH LB DC

• coloidosmotic p. maintainance (mainly albumin)
• source for AA
• Buffer
• Transport
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💬 ICH LB DC
• Iron: hepcidin, transferrin, ferritin
• Calcium: calbindin
• Hormones
• Lipids: apoproteins A, B, C, E
• Bilirubin: albumin
• Drugs: cisplatine uses copper transport channels
• Trace elements: copper - ceruloplasmin
• Enzymes
• Immunity
• Hemostasis
• Heme metabolism

• Is used to separate proteins based on their electrical charge and size
• Used to identify which proteic fraction is modified & to orientate towards a syndrome, NOT the cause
• Based on their movement on an electrical field

• Albumin: 52-60% (1)
• Alpha-1 globulins: 3-5% (5)
• Alpha-2 globulins: 7-9% (4)
• Beta globulins: 11-14% (3)
• Gamma globulins: 16-20% (2)

IL1, IL6, TNF

binds to phosphocholine on pathogen → activates complement 📷

• quick incr. CRP
• ESP may be normal in first 24h
• CRP decr. more rapidly after treatment

• synthesized by the liver
• ↑ in acute + chronic inflammation
• platelet aggregation + clot formation

• genetic disorder → defective production of A1AT
• accumulation of abnormal A1AT in liver → liver disease
• Decr. activity in the lungs → panacinar emphysema 📷+ COPD
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centrilobular emphysema is seen in smoker, panacinar in imbalance betw. protease + protease-inhibitor (A1AT)

• avoiding of irritant inhalatin (smoking)
• infusion of A1AT
• liver + lung transplantation

• hereditary (Autosomal dominant)
• secondary: renal failure, nephrotic syd→ loss of ATIII

thrombosis 👣

• recurrent thrombosis + pulmonary embolism in hereditary form
• nephrotic syd → loss of Anti-Thrombin III → higher activity Factor II + X → thrombosis 📷

A tumor marker is a biomarker found in blood, urine, or body tissues that can be elevated by the presence of one or more types of cancer

• detectable in blood when malignant transformation occured
• precise identification of tissue malignancy

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• GI
• Liver
• Pancreas
• Breast, Cervic

• CA 15.3
• CEA
• BR27

• EGF
• Cathepsin D

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CA125

AFP (alpha-fetoprotein)

• CEA
• bHCG
• SCCA (squamous cell carcinoma antigen)
• cytokeratins (CYFRA)

PSA, free PSA

Calcitonin

• CEA
• CA (19.9)

AFP (alpha feto protein)

CEA

Ferritin

Hypercalcemia (osteolysis)

Alkaline phosphatase

Acid phosphatase

• gonads - testes + ovaries
• hematologic disease
• hepatic
• lymphoma
• melanoma
• neuroblastoma

• CNS tumors
• Neuroblastoma
• Neuroendocrine tumors (small cell lung)

→monitoring treatment of pulmonary+neuroblastoma

Galactosyl Transferase II

Paraproteins = Ig + light chain fragment

Protein M

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• ADH
• ACTH
• PTH